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The Eskaleut ( ), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan"Due to the pejorative nature of the term 'Eskimo' in some locales, and the increasing preference for 'Unangan' as opposed to 'Aleut' in Alaska, this family may be alternately referred to as Inuit–Yupik–Unangan . The hyphenated term gives some sense of the variety of languages subsumed under this family label." Holton, Gary. 2012. Overview of Comparative Inuit–Yupik–Unangan. Retrieved 18 November 2013. languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent, and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of what are now the United States (Alaska); Canada (Inuit Nunangat) including Nunavut, Northwest Territories (principally in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region), northern Quebec (Nunavik), and northern Labrador (Nunatsiavut); Greenland; and the Russian Far East (Chukchi Peninsula). The language family is also known as Eskaleutian, or Eskaleutic.Cf. Fleming 1987:189.
The Eskaleut language family is divided into two branches: Eskimoan and Aleut language. The Aleut branch consists of a single language, Aleut, spoken in the Aleutian Islands and the Pribilof Islands. Aleut is divided into several . The Eskimoan languages are divided into two branches: the Yupik languages, spoken in western and southwestern Alaska and in Chukotka, and the Inuit languages, spoken in northern Alaska, Canada and Greenland. Inuit languages are divided into several varieties. Neighbouring varieties are quite similar, although those at the farthest distances from the centre in the Diomede Islands and Tunu are quite divergent.
The proper place of one language, Sirenik language, within the Eskimoan family has not been settled. While some linguists list it as a branch of Yupik, "Ethnologue report for Yupik Sirenk", Ethnologue, Retrieved 25 August 2008. others list it as a separate branch of the Eskimoan family, alongside the Yupik and Inuit languages. "Alaska Native Languages – An Overview" . Retrieved 25 August 2008.
Alexander Vovin (2015)Vovin, Alexander. 2015. Eskimo Loanwords in Northern Tungusic. Iran and the Caucasus 19 (2015), 87–95. Leiden: Brill. notes that northern Tungusic languages, which are spoken in eastern Siberia and northeastern China, have Eskaleut loanwords that are not found in Southern Tungusic, implying that Eskaleut was once much more widely spoken in eastern Siberia. Vovin (2015) estimates that the Eskaleut loanwords in Northern Tungusic had been borrowed no more than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading northwards from its homeland in the middle reaches of the Amur River. Vovin (2015) concludes that the homeland ( Urheimat) of Proto-Eskaleut was in Siberia rather than in Alaska.
More recently Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002) suggested grouping Eskaleut with all of the language families of northern Eurasia (Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Korean, Japanese, Ainu, Nivkh/Gilayak, and Chukchi–Kamchatkan), with the exception of Yeniseian, in a proposed language family called Eurasiatic. Such proposals are not generally accepted. Criticisms have been made stating that Greenberg's hypothesis is ahistorical, meaning that it lacks and sacrifices known historical elements of language in favour of external similarities. Although the Eurasiatic hypothesis is generally disregarded by linguists, one critique by Stefan Georg and Alexander Vovin stated that they were not willing to disregard the theory immediately although ultimately agreed that Greenberg's conclusion was dubious. Greenberg explicitly states that his developments were based on the previous macro-comparative work done by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Bomhard and Kerns. By providing evidence of lexical comparison, Greenberg hoped that it would strengthen his hypothesis.
Despite all these efforts, the Eurasiatic language theory was overruled on the basis that mass comparison is not accurate enough an approach. In comparative linguistics, the comparative method bases its validity on highly regular changes, not occasional semantic and phonological similarities, which is what the Eurasiatic hypothesis provides.
In the 1960s Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with the Wakashan languages. This was expanded by Jan Henrik Holst (2005).Jan Henrik Holst, Einführung in die eskimo-aleutischen Sprachen. Buske Verlag
The basic word schema is as follows: root-(affixes)-inflection-(enclitic). Below is an example from Central Siberian Yupik.
There are a total of three affixes internal to the word angyagh. The root (or free morpheme) angyagh and the inflection -tuq on the right consist of the indicative mood marker plus third person singular. The enclitic –lu ‘also’ follows the inflection.
Following the postbases are non-lexical suffixes that indicate grammatical case on nouns and person and grammatical mood on verbs. The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to Eskimoan. The Eskimoan languages are ergative–absolutive in nouns and in Yup'ik languages, also in verbal person marking. All Eskaleut languages have obligatory verbal agreement with agent and patient in transitive clauses, and there are special suffixes used for this purpose in subordinate clauses, which makes these languages, like most in the North Pacific, highly complement deranking.
At the end of a word there can be one of a small number of with meanings such as "but" or indicating a polar question.
Phonologically, the Eskaleut languages resemble other language families of northern North America (Na-Dene and Tsimshianic) and far-eastern Siberia (Chukotko-Kamchatkan). There are usually only three vowels—, , —though some Yup'ik dialects also have . All Eskaleut languages lack both ejectives and aspirates, in which they resemble the Siberian languages more than the North American ones. Eskaleut languages possess voiceless Stop consonant at four positions (bilabial, coronal, velar consonant and uvular consonant) in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops (though it has retained the bilabial nasal). There are usually contrasting voiced and voiceless fricatives at the same positions, and in the Eskimoan subfamily a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present. A rare feature of many dialects of Yup'ik and Aleut is contrasting .
Yupik exhibits no consonant assimilation process so common to Inuit.
Consonants in parentheses are non-Proto-Eskimoan phonemes.
Long vowels are lower than their short counterpart vowels, but are less retracted if they make contact with a uvular consonant. For example: uuquchiing , qiiqix̂ , and qaaqaan 'eat it!'
Aleut has no native labial stops and allows clusters of up to three consonants as well as consonant clusters in word initial position.
Cross-linguistically rare phonological features include voiceless nasals and absence of a .
As a polysynthetic language, Eskaleut is concerned with what "each morpheme means, which categories it can attach to, whether there is any category change, etc. and what type of morphophonological effect occurs to the left as it attaches to the stem".
Aleut is not an ergative–absolutive language. It does not matter if the verb is transitive or intransitive—subjects and objects are not marked differently.
If a transitive object or an object of possession is openly communicated, ergative case marking will not be expressed. If a transitive object or object of possession is not openly communicated, then ergative case marking will be expressed.
Example of case marking in Aleut:
The syntax of Eskaleut is concerned with the functional use of its morphological structure. The two language branches, although part of the same family, have separated and detached themselves in relation to grammatical similarities. Bergsland states that Aleut, which was once a language more similar to Proto-Eskimoan than the current Eskimoan languages themselves, has distanced itself from the ancient language.
The case inflections, "relative *-m, instrumental *-mEk/meN, and locative *-mi have undergone phonological merger and led to a completely different explanation of ergative morphology in Proto-Eskimoan.
In order to further explain the profound changes that have occurred in Aleutian syntax, Bergsland proposed the Domino Effect, which is ultimately the chronological order of Aleut’s unique features. Below is a step by step list of the 'domino effect':
Cognates of the Eskimoan languages can be found in Michael Fortescue et al., 2010.
Cognates of the Aleut language can be found in Knut Bergsland, 1997.
There are two types of pronouns: independent pronouns and pronominal pronouns.
In Eskaleut languages, singular, dual, and plural nouns are marked by inflectional suffixes, and if they are possessed, the number marker is followed by pronominal suffixes that specify the (human) possessor. There are no genders, and this can be seen in the four persons: my, your, his/her, his/her own.
"His/her own" specifies ownership, in contrast with "his/her", which does not. E.g., his house vs. his own house. (See Possessive determiner § Semantics.)
Aleut uses independent pronouns, instead of pronominal marking on verbs. On the other hand, Eskimoan languages have four persons and three numbers marked by pronominal suffixes.
Phonology
Eskimoan
The following vowels and consonants were taken from Michael Fortescue et al., 2010.
Vowels
Eskimoan corresponds to Aleut .
Consonants
Inuit allows only a single initial consonant and no more than two successive consonants between vowels.
Aleut
The following vowels and consonants were taken from Knut Bergsland, (1997).
Vowels
The Aleut language has six vowels in total: three short vowels , , , and three long vowels , , . Orthographically, they would be spelled ii, uu, and aa. There are no diphthongs in Aleut vowels. The length of the vowel is dependent upon three characteristics: stress, surrounding consonants, and in particularly Eastern Aleut, surrounding vowels. Short vowels are in initial position if a following consonant is velar or labial. For example: the demonstratives uka, ika, and aka.
Consonants
The Aleut consonants featured below include single Roman letters, digraphs, and one trigraph. Phonemes in parentheses are found only in Russian and English loanwords, the phoneme in italics is found only in Eastern Aleut, and the bold phonemes are a part of the standard Aleut inventory.
Morphology
Language type
Polysynthetic language
Eskaleut is polysynthetic, which features a process in which a single word is able to contain multiple post-bases or morphemes. The Eskaleut languages are exclusively (with the exception of one prefix in Inuktitut that appears in demonstratives). Suffixes are able to combine and ultimately create an unlimited number of words. Some of the morphemes that are able to attach contain features such as carrying nominal subjects and objects, adverbial information, direct objects, and spatial noun phrases. Polysynthetic languages are said to be a form of extreme agglutination, which allows single words to carry the same information that another language expresses in whole clauses. For example, in Central Alaskan Yupik, one can say:
Morphosyntactic alignment
Eskimoan languages are ergative–absolutive. This means subjects of intransitive verbs and objects of transitive verbs are marked with the absolutive case, while subjects of transitive verbs are marked with the ergative case.
Syntax
Eskaleut languages follow the basic word order of subject–object–verb (SOV).
Vocabulary comparison
The following is a comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Eskaleut language family (about 122 words). Note that empty cells do not imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language is formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language. Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.
boy hlax *aleqa nukaɫpegaq nukaɫpiaq nukaɫpiaq nugatpiaq nugatpiaq nukatpiaq nukatpiaq nukatpiaq nukatpiaq nukappiaq nukappiak nukappiaq nukapperaq nugappiaq daughter *paniɣ panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik family, relative ilaanux̂ *ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila girl ayaĝaadax̂ *nǝvi(a)ʁc(ǝɣ)a- neveghsaq neviarcaq niaqsaaʁruk niaqsiaʁruk niviaqsiaʁruk niviaqsiaʁruk niviakkaq niviaqhiaq niviatsiaq niviatsiak niviarhiaq niviarsiaraq niiarsiaq (grand)father adax̂/taatax̂ *ata *ata-ata ata ata aata ata/ava ata/ava aapa/taata aapa aapa/ata aappak ataata ataata ataata ataataq alaala human being (shaman word's) taĝu taʁu taghu taru taru tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau taa taa husband ugi *uɣi ugwik wik wii ui ui ui ui ui ui ui uik ui ui uviq man tayaĝux̂ *aŋu-nt angun angun angun angun angun angun angun angun angun anguti angutik angut angut tikkaq mother anax̂ *ana *ana-ana naa/ana aana aana aaga aaga aaka aaka aaka amaamak/anaana anaana anaana anaana anaanaq annivik mother-in-law *caki saki caki cakiq sagi chagi saki saki hakigaq haki saki sakik haki saki saqiq/sagiq older brother (of female) huyux̂ *aNǝ-LГun aningak anngaq anngaq ani ani ani ani ani ani ani anik ani ani ani older sister (of male) uhngix *aleqa alqaq aɫqaq aliraq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq angajuk angajuk aliqa aleqaq alara person anĝaĝinax̂ *inguɣ yuk suk yuk/cuk inuk inuk iñuk iñuk iñuk inuk inuk inuk inuk inuk iik son *iʁni-ʁ ighneq irneq irneq irniq irniq irñiq irñiq irñiq irniq irniq innik irniq erneq irniq wife ayagax̂ *nuLiaq nuliiq nuliq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliak nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq woman ayaĝax̂ *aʁnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq annak arnaq arnaq nuliakkaaq young brother (of female) kingii *nukaq uyughaq uyuwaq uyuraq nukaq nukaq nukaaluk nukaaluk nukaq nukaq nukaq nukak nukaq nukaq nukaq young sister (of male) uhngix *nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak najak najaatsuk najak najak najak
first-person singular (I) ting *vi hwanga w'iinga w'iinga wanga uanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvaqa uvak uanga uanga uara second-person singular (you) txin *ǝɫ-vǝn-t ɫpet eɫpet eɫpet ivlin ilvin ilvich ilvich ilvik ilvit ivvit iffit illit illit ittit third-person singular (he, she, it) ilaa/uda *ǝɫ-ŋa *una lnga/una elen/una elii/una ilaa/una ilaa/una ilaa/una ilaa/una ilaa/una una una una una una una first-person dual (we both) tingix *vik hwagakuk w'iingakuk w'iingakuk waguk uaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk second-person dual (you both) txidix *ǝɫ-ptek ɫpetek eɫpetek eɫpetek iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik ilittik ilittik first-person plural (we) tingin(s) *vit hwagakuta w'iingakuta w'iingakuta wagut uagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uagut uagut uangit second-person dual reflexive (both ... yourselves) txichix *ǝɫ-vcet ɫpesi eɫpici eɫpeci ilipsi ilipsi ilivsi ilivsi iliffi iliffi ilitsi ilitsi ilissi ilissi ilitsi third-person dual reflexive (both ... themselves) ilaan(s)/udan(s) *ǝɫ-ŋat *ukuat lngit/ukut elita/ukut eliita/ukut ilaat/ugua ilaat/ugua ilaat/ukua ilaat/ukua ilaat/ukua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ugua/ukkua
first-person singular (I) *tua *kuq second-person singular (you) *it third-person singular (he, she, it) *tuq first-person singular possessive (my) *nga second-person singular possessive (your) *in third-person singular possessive (his, her, its) *ngan third-person singular object (him, her, it) *jaa/kaa
who kiin *kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kia what alqux *caŋu sangwa/suna cacaq cacaq/tcauna suna sua sua suna/suva huna huna suna suna kihu suna/sua kisik when (past/future) qanaayam *qanga/qaku qavnga/kaku qangwaq/qaku qangvaq/qaku qanga/qagun qanga/qagu qaglaan/qaku qanga/qaku qanga/qaku qanga/qakugu qanga/qakugu kanga/kakugu qanga/qakugu qanga/qaqugu qanga/qara where qaataa *nani nani/naa/sami nama/nani nani/cami naung/nani naunga/nani sumi/nani/naung sumi/nani/naung humi/nani/nau humi/nani/naung nami/nani nami/nani humi sumi sumi why alqul(-usaal) *caŋu sangami cin/caluni ciin/caluni suami suami summan/suvataa summan/suvataa huuq huuq sumut summat huuq sooq suuq
anus idiĝasix̂ *ǝtǝʁ eteq eteq teq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itik itiq iteq iliq? *kiaavik arm chuyux̂ *taɫi- taɫiq taɫiq taɫiq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq talik taliq taleq taliq belly xax *aqja aqyaq aqsaq aqsaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq akiak aqiaq aqajaq ariaq blood aamaaxs *aruɣ awk auk auk awk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk aak aak calf tugaadix̂ *nakacuɣ-na- nakasugnaq nakacugnaq nakacugnaq nakasungnaq nakasungnaq nakasrungnaq nakasungnaq nakahungnaq nakahungnaq nakasunnaq nakasunnak nakahungnaq nakasunnaaq ear tutusix̂ *ciɣunt sigun cuun ciun siun siun siun siun hiun hiun siuti siutik hiut siut siit /*tusaat eye dax̂ *irǝ iya ii/iingaq ii/iingaq izi izi iri iri iyi iyi iji ijik ihi isi ili eyelash dam qaxsaa *qǝmǝʁja- qemeryaq/siqpik qemeryaq/ciqpik qemeryaq/ciqpek qimiriaq/siqpiq qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/hiqpik qimiriaq/hiqpik qimiriaq/siqpik kimigiak/sippik qimiriaq/hiqpik qimeriaq/serpik qimiiaq/sirpik finger atx̂ux̂ *ińura- yughaq suaraq yuaraq inugaq inugaq iñugaq iñugaq iñugaq inugaq inugaq inugak inugaq inuaq iiaq fingernail *kikra kiikiak kigiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kigiak foot kitax̂ *itǝɣ-(a-) itegaq itaq itgaq itigak itigaq isigak isigak ihigak itigak itigak itigak ihigak isigak hair iimlix *ńujaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nujaq nujak nujaq nujaq nujaq hand chax̂ *arɣa aykaq aikaq aikaq agrak agraq argak argak argak algak aggak aggak aghak assak attak head kamĝix̂ *ńarǝ-qu- naasquq/nayquq nasquq nacquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niakuk niaquq niaqoq suuniq heart kanuux̂ *uŋ-uma- unguvan unguwan unguvan uumman uumman uumman uumman uumman uumman uummati uummatik uummat uummat iimmat knee chidiĝix *ciɣǝr-qu serquq cisquq ciisquq siitquq siitquq siitquq siitquq hiitquq hiitquq siirquq siikkuk hiiqquq seeqqoq navel qiihliqdax̂ *qacaɫǝʁ qasaɫeq qaɫaciq qaɫaciq qalaziq qalachiq qalasriq qalasiq qalahiq qalahiq qalasiq kalasik qalahiq qalaseq nose angusix̂ *qǝŋa- qengaq qengaq qengaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq kingak qingaq qingaq qingaq
bowhead whale, whale alax̂ *aʁvǝʁ arveq arweq/arruq arveq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq avvik arviq arfeq arpiq Canada goose laĝix̂ *lǝqlǝʁ leghɫeq neqɫeq neqɫeq lirliq lirliq lirliq nirliq nirliq nirliq nirliq nillik nirliq nerleq nirtiq caribou itx̂aygix̂ *tuŋtu tungtu tuntu tuntu tuttu tuttu tuttu tuttu tuttu tuktu tuttu tuttuk tuktu tuttu tuttuq dog sabaakax̂ *qikmi- qikmiq qiqmiq/piugta qimugta qimmiq qimmiq qipmiq qimmiq qimmiq qinmiq qimmiq kimmik qimmiq qimmeq qimmiq fish qax̂ *ǝqaɫuɣ iqaɫuk iqaɫuk iqaɫuk iraluk iraluk iqaluk iqaluk qaluk iqaluk iqaluk ikaluk iqaluk eqaluk iqalik groundhog, Arctic squirrel sixsix *sigsik sikik cikik cikik siksrik chiksrik siksrik siksrik siksrik hikhik sitsik sitsik highik sissi sitsiq killer whale aglux̂ *aʁɫuɣ arɫuk aqɫuk arɫuk aarlu aarlu aarlu aarlu aarlu aarlu aarluk aalluk aarluk aarluk aartiq? louse kitux̂ *kumaɣ kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak oldsquaw/long-tailed duck aagix̂ *aXaŋǝ-liʁ aahaangwliq ahangkiluk aahaangiiq/aahaaliq aa'aangiq aa'aangiq aahaaliq aahaaliq ahaangiq aahaalliq ahaangiq ahaangik ahaangiq ahaangiq ahaangiq ptarmigan aĝdiikax̂ *aqărɣiʁ aqargiiq/aqarriq aqasgiiq aqazgiiq arargiq arargiq aqargiq aqargiq aqaygiq aqilgiq aqiggiq akiggik aqighiq aqisseq nagalaraq swan qukingix̂ *quɣruɣ quuk qugyuq qugyuq qugruk qugruk qugruk qugruk qugruk qugyuk qujjuk kutjuk qughuk qussuk qutsuk
and, also ama *amma amahwa/aamta amleq/cama amleq/cama amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma aamma aamma arrow *qaʁru ruuq ruuq qeruq qarruq qarruq qarruq qarruq qarruq qaryuq qajjuk katjuk qarhuq qarsoq qarliq ash utxix̂ *aʁra aʁra araq araq arra arra arra arra arra arya ajja atjak arhaq arsaq arlaq atmosphere, weather, out silan/slax̂ *cǝla sɫaa ɫa ciɫa/ella sila chila sila sila hila hila sila sila hila sila sila breath angil *anǝʁ- anernaq anerneq anerneq anirniq anirniq aniqniq anirniq anirniq anirniq anirniq aninnik anirniq anerneq anirniq cloud *nụvǝja nuiya nuwiya nuviya nuviya nuvuya nuvuya nuvujaq nuvujak nuvujaq nuiaq nuviaq cook unagix̂ *ǝɣa ega ega ega iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga inga cry, weep qidal *qiRă- qeya qia qeya qia qia qia qia qia qia qia kia qia qia qia dog barking qihlux *qiluɣ qilugaq qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk kiluk qiluk qiluk qiliilaq earth tanax̂ *luna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna feather haka *culuk siluk culuk culuk suluk chuluk suluk suluk huluk huluk suluk suluk huluk suluk siik fire qignal *ǝknǝ- ekneq keneq keneq ikniq itniq ikniq igniq ingniq ingniq inniq innik ingniq inneq igivattattiq Here it is! wa *uva hwa w'a w'a uvvaa uvvaa uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uhha uffa uppa hilltop qayax̂ *qemi qemiq qemiq qemiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq kimik qimiq qimeq qimiq house ulax̂ *ǝŋlu inglu englu englu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu illu illuk iglu illu ittiq hungry haagil *kajak keek kaik kaik kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kiss, kiss on nose qingul *kungik singaq(-ghaqaa) cingaq cingaq kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik lake hanix̂ *taci-ʁ nayvaq nanwaq nanvaq navraq/teziq navraq/tachiq narvaq/tasriq narvaq/tasiq narvaq/tahiq nalvaq/tahiq navvaq/tasiq navvak/tasik nassak/tahiq nassak/taseq nattak/tasiq load husix̂ *uci usi uci uci uzi uchi usri usi uhi uhi usi usik uhi usi usi milk mulukax *emug, itug ituk/emuk muk ituk immuk immuk immuk immuk ituk miluk immuk immuk immuk immuk immuk name asax̂ *atǝʁ ateq ateq ateq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atik atiq ateq aliq no nangaa *naaka *qaanga naka/naah kaa ina/qanga naami/naagga qanngaq/naagga naumi/naakka naumi/naagga naggai imannaq naggai/nauk aukang na'a/naagga naami/naagga iiqqii price, value akiisal *aki aki aki aki aki aki agi agi aki aki aki aki akik aki agiq shaman qugaaĝix̂ *aŋalku- angaɫkuq angaɫquq angaɫkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angakkuq angakkuk angakkuq angakkoq angakkiq ship, boat ayxaasix̂ *umi(r)a umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiak umiaq umiaq umiaq sky inix̂ *qilaɣ qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak kilak qilak qilak qilak smoke huyux̂s *puju puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq pujuq pujuk pujuq pujoq pujuq snow(flake) qaniigix̂ *qaniɣ qanik qanik qaniq qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik kanik qanik qanik qanik star sdax̂ *umluria uvluriaq uvluriaq uvluriaq uvluriaq uvluriaq ubluriaq ulluriaq ullugiak ulluriaq ulloriaq utturiaq sun, day aĝadĝix̂ *ciqi-nǝʁ siqineq/mazaq ciqineq/masaq ciqineq/macaq siriniq/mazaq chiqiniq/machaq siqiñiq/masaq siqiñiq hiqiñiq hiqiniq siqiniq sikinik hiqiniq seqineq siirliq tell a story/legend uniikal *uniɣ-paʁ- ungikpaq unifkuaq unifkaraq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unikkaaq unikkaak unikkaaq unikkaaq unikkaaq tent pulaatxix̂ *tupǝʁ tupeq tuviq tuviq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupik tupiq tupeq tupiq to ask ahmat- *apete apetaqa- apqar- apete- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apigi- apiri- aperi- apii- to urinate qaalux̂ **quʁ(r)ǝ- uraquq qure- qure- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- kui- qui- qui- quvi- tree, wood *napar- napartuq napaq napa napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaattuq napaattuk uqpik/napaaqtuq orpik/napaartoq urpik/napaartuq water taangax̂ *ǝmǝʁ emeq meq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imik imiq imeq imiq wind achunal *anuqǝ anuqa anuqa anuqa anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anugik anuri anori anirsiq yes aang *aa/ii ii ii-i ii-i ii-i ii-i ii ii ii ii ii ii ii aap ii
Cold!/Brrr!/How cold! ababa *alaapaa alaapa alaappa alaappa alaappa alaappa alaappa ikkii ikkii ikkii ikkii ikkii copper kanuuyax̂ **kanɣu-ja kanuya kanuyaq kanuyaq kannuuyaq kannuyaq kannuyaq kannguyaq kannuyaq kannuyaq kanusaq kannujak kannussaq kanngussak kanngutsak fat ignatul *quvi quginaq quili quvinaq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq kuinik quiniq quineq quiniq grey hair qidaayux *qirʁǝʁ qiiq qiiq qiiq qiʁriq qirʁiq qirʁiq qirʁi qirʁiq qiiq qiiq kiik qiiq qeeq qiiq long adul *takǝ(v) taakǝlʁi takequq takequq tagiruq tagiruq takiruq takiruq takiruq takiyuq takijuq takijuk takihuuq takisooq/takivoq tagiliq still, also, more ahlii *culi salin cali cali suli chuli suli suli huli huli suli suli huli suli suli swell hums *puvet puuvaaquq puge- puve- puit- puit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puik- puiq- white quhmax̂ *qătǝ-ʁ qeteq qeteq qeter- qatiq qatiq qatiq qatiq qatiq qakuqtaq qakutaq kakuttak qakuqtuq qaqortoq qaartiq
one ataqan *ataʁu-ci- ataaziq atauciq/atuusiq atauciq atausiq atauchiq atausriq atausiq atauhiq atauhiq atausiq atausik atauhiq ataaseq alaasiq two aalax̂ *malǝʁu- malghuk malluk malruk marluuk marluk malruk malruk malruk malruuk maqruuk magguuk marluk marluk martut three qankun(-s) *pingajunt pingayut pingaun pingayun pingasut pingachut piñgasrut piñgasut piñgahut pingahut pingasut pingasut pingahut pingasut pingasit four siiching *cǝtama- sitamat staamat cetaman sitaman chitaman sisaman sisaman hihaman hitaman sitamat sitamat hihamat sisamat siamat five chaang *taɫiman taɫimat taɫiman taɫiman tauliman taliman talliman talliman talliman talliman tallimat tallimat tallimat tallimat tattimat six atuung *aʁvinelegh aghvínelek arwinlgen arvinglegen arwinilik arwinilik itchaksrat itchaksat itchakhat arvinillik pingasuujurtut pingasuujuttut arviniglit arfinillit arpiniit ten hatix̂ *qulǝ(ŋ) qula qulin qula qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit kulit qulit qulit qutit
See also
Notes
Bibliography
(2025). 9783110194272, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110194272
Michael D. Fortescue (1984). 9788787874106, Institut for Eskimologi, Københavns Universitet. ISBN 9788787874106
(1994). 9781555000516, Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. . ISBN 9781555000516
(2025). 9780199641642 ISBN 9780199641642
Further reading
External links
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